Time Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Time Management - Essay Example Instead, it focuses on implementation of strategies that are involved in the process of time allocation. This paper explores issues regarding time management in nursing profession, through elaboration of strategies involved. Numerous empirical investigations have indicated that nurses should develop a habit of arriving early in their workplaces. Therefore, by arriving early, nurses get enough time to read reports, hand cover sheets, organizes their work and settle their minds (Woogara, 2012). Moreover, apart from arriving early, they can also develop a habit of making notes for their personal use. These notes are obtained from hand cover sheets and reports. In fact, they can also develop lists or grids containing patients’ names and related tasks. Besides, these notes incorporate a list of activities to be undertaken during the day, and objectives that should be achieved (Woogara, 2012). Nonetheless, nurses should estimate time required for completing each task, and this can p revent misallocation of time on some tasks, thereby neglecting others. Given that nursing is a highly challenging profession, there are chances of having numerous tasks, which cannot be completed within the working hours. Moreover, this leads to increases changes in prioritization of these tasks (Fedor, 2013). For instance, changes in prioritization of tasks occur in situations where patients need urgent attention. Nevertheless, it is wise to consider the pace of tasks in nursing practice, which can lead to burning out and stress. Therefore, time management techniques are designed in ways that facilitate achievement of objectives and preventing burning out or stress (Fedor, 2013). In this case, time management techniques are subdivided into seven strategies, which include: Planning Nursing profession has an aspect of unpredictability; thus, it calls for setting strategies and planning on ways to undertake various tasks (Tucker, 2013). The nurse is required to make necessary plans su ch as competing patients’ paperwork, establishing ways to deal with patients’ needs, making submissions of laboratory requests and attending staff meetings (Tucker, 2013). Task that are completed are noted in a â€Å"to-do-list,† thereby helping nurses to stay focused. In this case, nurses are able to ensure that time is not wasted. Nurses are urged to assess their lists in order to modify it through deletion or addition of items based on their importance and urgency (Tucker, 2013). Therefore, planning enables nurses to manage their time and reduce chances of forgetting important things. Prioritization Prioritization of tasks can facilitate management of time, thereby enabling nurses to attend to their tasks depending on level of urgency (Woogara, 2012). In this case, nurses should arrange tasks to be undertaken during the day based on their priorities in order to allow them identify tasks that can be postponed (Woogara, 2012). For instance, care of patients and their satisfaction should be highly prioritized by nurses. Therefore, they are supposed to complete tasks that are highly prioritized, thereby eliminating chances of forgetting or delaying tasks (Woogara, 2012). On the other hand, nurses are urged to revisit

How historians make use of other social sciences Essay

How historians make use of other social sciences - Essay Example By tradition and definition, history requires certain written records which can be evaluated and reviewed. Verbal or the oral history often gets lost and the historians or the interested professionals try to understand the history through folklores and myths where there is no written account. History has normally been understood as common memory of the people that provides with the detailed account of the past. The subject also imprisons shared experiences, values and ideas and helps one to analyze the past to figure out the future ideas, experiences and values. The tools offered by the social sciences are â€Å"behind† or â€Å"beneath† historical institutions, ideas and events (dimensions of economic change, social inequality, population growth and mobility, social protest, behavior and mass attitude and voting patterns) (Robinson,†History†). As discussed earlier, history is an amalgamation of various other subjects particularly social sciences. Also, the trend among the historians suggests that the scholars of history have used other disciplines of social science within the periphery of the gamut of history. The scholars of the field often used other related subjects like geography, political science, law and economics in order to analyze the historical events. The scholars of the subject believe that without inculcating other social sciences, historical events cannot be understood in the right and the best spirit. According to the school of thought, one must know about the political happenings or the geographical particulars of any area or person before knowing the history of the person or of the area. Such inculcation provides wider spectrum and helps a lot to understand the exact scheme of things that had occurred long back. Many of the scholars are of the view that such usage of other social science subjects with in the domain of history is because of the fact that all of the social science subjects are inter –

With Each Moment, Comes Great Triumph Essay Example for Free

With Each Moment, Comes Great Triumph Essay It is inherent to say that each of us refers back to memories of our childhood to reminisce in the awkward, comical and daunting experiences and discover parallelisms to our present existence. Rohinton Mistry writes of the parallel fears of water and swimming from childhood to adulthood and of overcoming, slowly but surely, a seemingly trivial act. The imagery and memory of water, specifically, is a key theme throughout the story. Mistry writes of the symbolism and meaning of water for the character in a philosophical way through self-exploring questions and recollections. The thought and discussion of taking swimming lessons as an adult gives an opening to memories of attempted swimming lessons and the importance of Chaupatty Beach. â€Å"It seemed that the dirtier it became, the more crowds it attracted†¦ (Or was it the crowds that made it dirtier? )†(260) This distant and uninviting body of water is the starting place for swimming lessons, though quick to be unenthusiastic â€Å"because of the filth†(261) and the ‘guttersnipes’ that taunted and teased the young learner. This causes the reader to remember some aspects of swimming and the experiences of struggling physically, fearing peer pressure, and the unknown of deep water. Mistry is increasingly descriptive of water imagery and moments of memory so these images move off the page and into imagination, allowing the reader to visualise the filth, the struggle and the fear. â€Å"The universal symbol of life and regeneration did nothing but frustrate me. (260) There are numerous symbolic terms and meanings for water where water is cleansing, type of renewal, or a connection between symbolic life and death. When the first adult swimming lesson is attempted, there is a feeling of hopelessness and terror. The character is weighed with emotion and burdened with dispelled expectation. â€Å"The swimming pool, like Chaupatty beach, has produced a stillbirth. †(263) The character is beyond disappointment when he realises his expectation of triumph emerges into a symbol of death. Failure to swim through filth must mean something other than failure to rebirth – failure of symbolic death? †(264) This question is posed as much for the reader as they are for the character. There is a need to answer for the character so he might come to the realisation that there is more to life than being imprisoned by the failed attempts, to press on, move forward and endeavour to reach your goal. The character eventually becomes in a way reborn through his seemingly ordinary experience in the bathtub and the human nature of anting to overcome a fear. We relate to the idea of feeling reborn when overcoming the anxiety of particular obstacles on our lives. Finally, at his own pace, he realises he must fight his panic and fear of water as he has seen â€Å"the world outside the water†¦ it is now time to see what is inside. †(270) He sees with a changed perspective, his eyes are opened to the opportunities that he is yet to face and eventually triumph.

Importance of Teaching Listening Skills

Importance of Teaching Listening Skills Listening comprehension is an important language skill to develop. Language learners want to understand target language (L2) speakers and they want to be able to access the rich variety of aural and visual L2 texts available via network-based multimedia. Furthermore, listening comprehension is at the heart of L2 learning and the development of L2 listening skills has demonstrated a beneficial impact on the development of other skills (e.g. Dunkel 1991; Rost 2002). Therefore, it is important to develop L2 listening competence; yet, in spite of its importance, L2 learners are rarely taught how to listen effectively (e.g. Mendelsohn 2001, 2006; Berne 2004; LeLoup Pontiero 2007). In addition, listening is an essential skill which develops faster than speaking and often affects the development of reading and writing abilities in learning a new language (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992; Oxford, 1993). According to them, the main reason is that one receives input through listening to instructions or explanations prior to responding orally or in writing. Listening is not an easy skill to acquire because it requires listeners to make meaning from the oral input by drawing upon their background knowledge of the world and of the second language (Byrnes, 1984; Nagle Sanders, 1986; Young, 1997) and produce information in their long term memory and make their own interpretations of the spoken passages (Murphy, 1985; Mendelsohn, 1994; Young, 1997). In other words, listeners need to be active processors of information (Young, 1997). Meanwhile, Vandergrift (1996, 1997, and 2003) asserts that listening is a complex, active process of interpretation in which listeners try to su it what they hear with their prior knowledge. According to Richards (1983), this process is more complex for second language learners who have limited memory capacity of the target language. Therefore, it is necessary for them to utilize various listening strategies. As most English teachers Iran believe, although we have learned a lot about the nature of listening and the role of listening in communication, L2 listening has been considered to be the least researched of all four language skills. This may be due to its implicit nature, the ephemeral nature of the acoustic input and the difficulty in accessing the processes. In order to teach L2 listening more effectively, teachers need a richer understanding of the listening process. Research into L2 listening is important because a better understanding of the process will inform pedagogy. According to Vandergrift (2007), students who learn to control their listening processes can enhance their comprehension; This, in turn, affects the development of other skills and overall success in L2 learning. 1.2. Statement of Problem Listening comprehension may seem relatively straightforward to native language (L1) speakers but it is often a source of frustration for second and foreign language (L2) learners (e.g., Graham, 2006). Further, little attention has been focused on systematic practice in L2 listening (see DeKeyser, 2007) i.e.; on the integrated instruction of a sequential repertoire of strategies to help L2 learners develop comprehension skills for real-life listening (Berne, 2004; Mendelsohn, 1994; Vandergrift, 2004). A review on recent research on second or foreign listening instruction suggested a need for an analysis of the effectiveness of metacognitive instruction for developing L2 listening comprehension. Current approaches for effective L2 listening are toward real-life authentic ample-input listening with more of top-down approaches and process instruction. Most of the studies, support real-life listening with authentic materials (Buck, 2002; Goh, 2008; Richards, 2005; Vandergrift, 2007; Veenman et a1., 2006). Top-down approaches have drawn more recent favors than bottom-up approaches (Goh, 2008; Rost, 2002; Vandergrift, 2004). Process listening was favored to product listening (Vandergrift, 2004; Field, 2003; Buck, 1995; Krashen, 2008). Interest was also indicated in raising student awareness of the listening process (Vandergrift, 1999; Mendelsohn, as cited in Vandergrift, 2004). Among the approaches to L2 listening, metacognitive instruction for L2 listening was noted to be a most recent trend (Annevirta et al., 2007; Beasley et al., 2008; Chen, 2007; Derwing, 2008; Field, 2008; Goh, 2008; Graham et al., 2008; Lee Oxford, 2008; Vandergrift, 2007; Veenman et al., 2006; Zohar Peled, 2008). In general, comprehension historically has received only minimal treatment in the teaching of English as a Second Language (ESL), but it is, in fact, one of the most important skills a second language (L2) learner must master to succeed in academic studies (Jung, 2003, Thompson Rubin, 1996). For learners to become proficient in listening comprehension, they must receive comprehensible input (Vandergrift, 1997, p. 495) as well as have ample opportunity to practice using, or producing, the language. In second language acquisition, listening comprehension used to be considered a passive activity; thus, it did not merit researchers attention (Jung, 2003; Thompson Rubin, 1996; Vandergrift, 2004). It had been assumed that a learners ability to comprehend spoken language would develop entirely on its own in an inductive way through repetition and imitation. As recently as the 1970s there were no textbooks devoted to teaching the skill of listening in a second language. It was assumed that the ability to comprehend spoken language would automatically improve because learners with exposure to the oral discourse would learn through practice. Listening texts are a relatively recent addition to the ESL or ESL curricula; the focus of earlier second or foreign language learning texts which included a focus on listening comprehension was primarily on testing students ability to listen to oral discourse and then answer comprehension questions based upon the information (Carrier, 2003; Field, 1998). Today, however, a growing body of research indicates that the focus has shifted to actively and intentionally teaching strategies for learning how to process, comprehend, and respond to spoken language with greater facility, competence, and confidence (Rost, 2007). Despite, recognizing the importance of listening strategies for the development of foreign language proficiency, very limited studies have been performed in Iran concerning the strategies employed by Iranian EFL learners in relation to listening proficiency levels. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine how strategies training may benefit L2 learners in their development of listening comprehension. 1.3. Significance of the Study The current study addresses the need for further research in the area of systematic teaching of listening strategies. Accoding to Carrier (2003), for L2 learners, the ability to use strategies effectively in their academic listening is crucial (Carrier, 2003). He believed that learners need to be able to actively and selectively choose the strategies most applicable for a given listening situation and evaluate strategy effectiveness in their everyday learning tasks. As Carrier (ibid) indicated in her study, students can benefit from instruction in strategies for academic listening in a variety of settings and incorporating many types of media. This study adds to the growing body of research of how adult EFL students pursuing academic study may benefit from explicit, systematic teaching of listening strategies. Doing this research contributes a method to introduce and model L2 listening strategies. Results of the study provide insight into participants self-perceptions of their use of listening strategies both before and after systematic classroom instruction. 1.4. Research Questions The following research questions formed the basis of the study: 1. Does explicit listening comprehension strategy training based on CALLA instructional model increase Iranian EFL learners listening comprehension 2. What metacognitive listening strategies, based on Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ), do Iranian EFL learners report before and after metacognitive training program? 1.5. Research Hypotheses Based on the above questions, the following hypotheses will be estimated: 1. Explicit listening comprehension strategy training based on CALLA instructional model cannot play any role in increasing Iranian EFL learners listening comprehension. 2. There is no significant difference in using metacognitive listening strategies, based on Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) by Iranian EFL learners before and after metacognitive training program. 1.6. Limitations of the Study One limitation of this study relates to the selection of participants. It was anticipated that the body of participants was likely to be of predominantly one language and cultural background. While this could provide insights into the strategy use of that particular language group, it might preclude broader multicultural generalizations of the study. In addition, it was impossible to randomize the selection of participants because of the structure of the research. The study needed to be conducted as a component of regularly scheduled EFL coursework. Limited randomization was provided in the anonymity of participant responses on the research instrument questionnaires as well as with proficiency leveling. Participants prior exposure to listening strategies instruction or to the manner in which such instruction may have taken place is another area that was impossible to determine. Indeed, students may consciously or unconsciously use strategies transferred from their learning and listening experiences in their first language. In addition, instructors may offer strategies instruction without intentionally planning to do so. If students have friends who are native speakers of English, spend much time watching American movies or listening to news broadcasts, or in other ways have a lot of exposure to English outside of class time, they may have adopted a variety of listening strategies that their classmates who do not engage in such activities have not. 1.7. Definition of Key Terms The following terms are used throughout this study and are defined as related to use in this research. Listening: an active process in which listeners select and interpret information that comes from auditory and visual clues in order to define what is going on and what the speakers are trying to express (Thompson Rubin, 1996, p. 331). For this study, the focus is on listening for academic purposes. That might include listening during academic lectures, seminars, group work, or any other aural discourse that is likely to occur in an academic classroom setting. Metacognition: Metacognition refers to the learners knowledge of whatever strategies s/he might use for specific tasks and under what conditions those strategies will be most effective (Pintrich, 2002). Strategy training: teaching explicitly how, when, and why to apply language learning and language use strategies to enhance students efforts to reach language program goals (Carrell, 1996; Cohen, 1998; Ellis Sinclair, 1989, as cited in Chen, 2005, p. 5). CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 2.1. Overview This chapter presents a brief historical timeline of the teaching of listening comprehension in EFL and ESL context. Of note is that listening research and teaching has a relatively short history as compared to that of reading, writing, grammar, and speaking. Certainly, the process of learning how to listen in a second language shares features with learning to listen in ones mother tongue; however, some features are different. The literature provides insight into these similarities and differences. Within this section, top-down and bottom-up processing as they function in the L2 listening process are explained, as is the interaction between the two processes. Finally, learning strategies, in particular, those used in the L2 listening process are presented. In most of the research accomplished to date, strategies have been classified in a descriptive manner. Researchers agree to the dearth of studies showing what types of intervention-or instruction-of listening strategies will help L 2 students to improve their listening comprehension. It is to this end that the current study was undertaken. 2.2. History of Teaching Listening Comprehension Though one of the most important but also most difficult skills a second language (L2) learner must master to succeed in academic studies, L2 listening comprehension has not received the research attention it deserves (Jung, 2003, Thompson Rubin, 1996). Though the focus in teaching today is on presenting listening as an active receptive skill which needs special attention in language study (Morley, 2001, p. 72.), listening was traditionally considered to be a passive skill, unlike speaking or grammar (Vandergrift, 2004). Even as recently as the 1970s there were no textbooks devoted to teaching the skill of listening in a second language. One hundred and fifty years ago, it was thought that speaking and writing in a second language were productive, or active skills, while listening and reading were receptive, and thus passive. In some of the earliest recorded language classes, listening was not taught at all. In one of the earliest of the language teaching approaches, Grammar Translation (Felder Enriquez, 1995; Flowerdew, Miller, 2005), teaching was conducted in the learners native tongue, and only the grammar, sentence structure and vocabulary of the foreign language, generally Greek or Latin, were taught so that learners could translate texts. The first of the language teaching methods that touched upon the importance of listening comprehension is known as the Direct Approach (Felder Enriquez, 1995), in which learners were immersed in the target language, with the L2 being the language of instruction (Flowerdew Miller, 2005). Taught inductively, learners mastered the grammar by creating rules based on their ever-growing experience with the language. Correctness in all aspects of the language was emphasized. In the Direct Approach, by necessity, listening comprehension played a major role. However, the development of listening comprehension was not actively taught; it was assumed that learners would pick up this skill in an inductive way, through repetition and use. Certainly, with its focus on inductive learning, no listening strategies were actively taught in the Direct Approach. Although listening comprehension was a component of the Grammar Approach also, students were constantly tested on their listening ability only as it related to their ability to simultaneously read and listen to a recorded piece of discourse and make sense of the grammatical and lexical rules of the language. One major drawback of this method was that the classroom activities did not relate in any meaningful way to everyday listening activities outside of the classroom (Flowerdew Miller, 2005). Students using this method were called upon to fill in missing words, a task they could easily perform without having any idea of the actual meaning of the discourse. The Audiolingual Approach (Larsen-Freeman, 2000), which became popular in the 1960s and 1970s, required the listener to recognize and practice utterances and then create similar utterances patterned after the ones they had heard in a dialogue. It was during this time and with this approach to teaching languages that the audio-cassette language labs became widely used (Ross, 2003). The language lab focus was based on drill and practice, requiring much repetition and error correction with the goal of instilling in students correct patterns of discourse. Developing listening comprehension strategies, again, was not the focus of this approach; rather listening skill was taught only as it pertained to the manipulation of newly learned grammatical and lexical structures. An unfortunate result was that in their learning process, students interacted much more with machines than with other humans. Then focus shifted toward student interaction in authentic language situations so that students could have exposure to comprehensible input as well as practice using the target language in real life situations. While cassette language laboratories are still in use today, many of these have been replaced or supplemented with computer laboratories and digital language laboratories. Emphasis on authentic tasks and projects, particularly those using the Internet, has become highly regarded (Ross, 2004). In the 1980s and 1990s, the Communicative Approach (Oxford et al., 1989)-one in which error was tolerated, provided the learners intended message could be conveyed and understoodbecame popular. The Communicative Approach, in which the focus is on use of authentic language, places the learner in a real exchange of meaning; the learner must process input and produce output such that each participant can understand the other. Once again, we see that listening strategies are assumed but not actively taught. Within this method, two schools developedthose who embrace the Cognitive Approach (Ellis, 1999) and those who embrace the Sociocognitive Approach (Warschauer Meskill, 2000). Another approach which came into existance was Cognitive Approach, the first of the two schools, which focuses on the view that all language learning is a unique psycholinguistic process (Warschauer Meskill, 2000, p. 3). Learners are said to have a built-in cognitive ability to interact with and communicate in language that is both meaningful and comprehensible to them and construct their own meaning. Making errors is seen as a positive learning process through which learners construct the rules of the target language based upon input/output. Technologies that support this learning theory/style include text-reconstruction software, concordancing software, telecommunications, and multimedia simulation software (p. 4). Teachers can easily manipulate authentic text to create meaningful exercises (cloze-type), and students can use all sorts of software and Internet access to discover computer microworlds that, at their best, simulate an immersion or a linguistic bath environment (p. 5). They can experience the target language by conducting searches, interacting with and manipulating their findings. In many cases, students need not actually interact with other humans at all. The other school within the Communicative Approach embraces Sociocognitive Approaches. This school of thought contends that learners benefit greatly from interaction with people. Students need to interact with other humans in authentic language situations so that they can have comprehensible input as well as exposure and practice in the types of speech acts in real life outside the classroom. Authentic tasks and projects, particularly those utilizing the Internet, are highly regarded in this approach. Teaching methods that exploit computer-assisted discussion have become accepted. We see synchronous and asynchronous chat becoming a major component of language learning. While this medium is seen as somewhat artificial, it is still said to give students authentic practice in extended discourse and to provide an extra layer of language practice for students, one that is democratic. Students who are hesitant to use oral language in the classroom have greater opportunity to use language w ithout fear of making mistakes and thus losing face. The result can be class discussions that are both highly democratic and collaborative. Next in the progression of accepted language teaching approaches is one known as the Task-Based Approach (Brown, 1987; Bruton, 2005). This approach requires the learner to listen and, based on the input, complete some sort of task, perhaps note-taking or filling in a chart or form. The tasks tend to be oriented to real-world needs of the learner but are frequently based upon discourse (lectures or passages) that is at least partially contrived. While not exactly authentic, these types of activities provide practice in completing the types of tasks students might be called upon to use in real life, such as noting information or completing forms. In current language learning approaches, we have the Learner-Strategy Approach (Floweredew Miller, 2005; Mendelsohn, 1994). This approach accounts for learners needs to initiate and recognize their own listening strategies what works for each individual learner. The Learner-Strategy approach examines listening comprehension from the perspective of individual learners and their independent learning with activities created to help learners discover what particular strategy works for them, including foci on schema activation, authentic tasks, presentation of many types of activities in many different contexts, and total interaction with the task. It is in this approach that metacognitive realization plays a significant role. Metacognition refers to the learners knowledge of whatever strategies s/he might use for specific tasks and under what conditions those strategies will be most effective (Pintrich, 2002). Pintrich pointed out that metacognition refers to knowledge of strategies; h aving the knowledge doesnt necessarily mean that the learner actually uses the strategies. It is important, however, for learners to identify which of their own listening strategies produce success, and it is helpful for them to share their strategies. Not only does the sharing help them to activate schemata and to recognize how the strategy works for them, their sharing may also serve to activate other learners schemata and be instructive for fellow learners. Both learner and fellow students become more autonomous and develop more control over their own learning, the goal of this particular approach. The more aware learners are of the learning process, more specifically, their own learning process, the greater the chance they can influence conscious learning (Nakatani, 2005, p. 77) and enhance their own strategic competence. According to Osada (2002), with the development of research, new theories, and development of second language curriculum, researchers interest in listening comprehension has grown. The 1990s showed a far greater interest in this skill than had previously been realized. Today, it is a widely accepted belief (Flowerdew Miller, 2005; Jung, 2003; Savignon, 2001; Wilson, 2003) that all skills, certainly including listening comprehension, require active negotiation with the language. Savignon (2001) likened the collaborative process involved in oral/aural communication to the game of football. The different strategies players use and the different moves they make as they avoid, block, or tackle the opposing teams players are similar to the strategies language learners use to negotiate meaning with their interlocutors in the new language. Not only do learners need to know the sound system, grammar, and syntax of the new language, but they also need to understand the pragmatic, or discourse meanings of the language. A final learning approach that is worth mentioning here is the Integrated Approach (Flowerdew Miller, 2005). Teachers of today recognize readily the need to actively teach strategies for developing accuracy in listening comprehension. The goal is to make students able to listen for and identify main ideas as well as details, to develop their critical listening and thinking skills, and to enable them to manipulate the language and show that they comprehend and can use what they have heard. An expected outcome is for students to be able to use heard information and present it in an intelligent and intelligible way. In the Integrated Approach, we see complementary strategies at play as students use aspects of the various approaches to language teaching and learning to comprehend, manipulate, and produce language in authentic, meaningful language tasks. 2.3. Different perspectives toward listening 2.3.1. Listening as Negotiation of Meaning That most peoples daily experiences are often not linked to reading and writing- but to situations where the spoken word is the dominant medium has already been noted in the context of first language (LI) listening (see, for example, Bohlken, 1999; Frest, 1999; Furnis, 2004). In academic contexts, for example, research on LI listening has shown that listening comprises more than 50% of college students total average communication day followed by reading (17%), speaking (16%) and writing (11%) (Emanuel et al, 2008). With the significant role that listening plays in our lives, therefore, it would be worthwhile to examine what facilitates and/or hinders listening. Changes in listening behavior have been associated with different factors including purpose for listening (Wolvin Coakley, 1996), types of interaction possible or required in a listening situation (Rost, 1990; 2002), personal dispositions (Sargent, Fitch-Hauser, Weaver, 1997), gender (Sargent Weaver, 2003), and cultural context (Keiwitz, Weaver, Brosius, Weiman, 1997). Imhof (2004) posits that, while listening, individuals tend to adjust swiftly to perceived characteristics of the [listening] situation (p. 43) such as the status they hold as compared to their speaking partner. In a study of listeners and speakers with English as a first language (ELI), Harms (1961) found that listeners comprehension was highest when listeners held the same status as the speakers. These findings accord with the results of the Varonis and Gass (1985) study on EL1-ESL and ESL-ESL interlocutor dyads, which demonstrated that meaning negotiations occurred less frequently between EL1-ESL interlocutors t han ESL-ESL. Varonis and Gass (1985) concluded that ESL speakers recognize the inequality of the conversation situation (p. 85) and thus are reluctant to attempt any further negotiation of meaning. In a critique of the cognitively-oriented L2 listening studies that have ignored the social context in which conversation occurs, Carrier (1999) argued that unequal status between ELI and ESL interlocutors hinders negotiations of meanings and thus has an adverse effect on comprehension. Carrier also suggested that status unequals may perceive their relationship as sharing no common base socially, occupationally, and economically (p. 74). In the context of L2 classroom settings, Pica (1992) reported that social relationships between teachers and students give them unequal status as interlocutors, which can hinder L2 comprehension, production and ultimately acquisition (p. 4). In an interesting case study of an intermediate level learners progress in listening comprehension during and after a pre-sessional English for Academic Purposes course, Lynch (1997) reported the discrepancies between performance within the sheltered setting of the language classroom and success in real interaction in the (non-sheltered) academic world. The study, which included evidence from performance (entry and exit listening tests), process (negotiation of meaning in the classroom) and perceptions (of listening difficulties after the course), pointed to the ways in which the listeners fears about being labeled as an ESL student hindered his negotiations of meaning in the classroom and ultimately his performance. When asked to make a conscious effort in applying meaning negotiation strategies (which he had learned in the sheltered language course) in his academic courses, the ESL listener replied, But I am the only foreign student and so I cannot interrupt very much (Lynch, 1997, 394). These results are in line with other work on first language listening, which demonstrate that inter-individ ual differences affect patterns of communication between listeners and speakers (Beatty, Marschal, Rudd, 2001; Imhof, 2004). 2.3.2 Listening as Comprehension Listening has been demonstrated to be one of the essentials of language learning (Rost 2002; Tafaghodtari Vandergrift, 2008; Vandergrift, 2007). Yet, with the diffusion of new technologies, which have particularly changed the ways in which university students spend their time (Emanuel et al., 2008), listening has become one of the most challenging aspects of L2 development for adult learners (e.g. Hasan 2000; Graham, 2003; Kim, 2002; Vandergrift, 2007). In a review of the recent developments in L2 listening research, Vandergrift (2007) rightly points to the significance that listening has in todays reality of L2 learners lives: Language learners want to understand target language (L2) and they want to be able to access the rich variety of aural and visual L2 texts available today via network-based multimedia, such as online audio and video, YouTube, podcasts and blogs (p. 191). Given its central role in the new media age, listening has remained surprisingly underresearched in the field of L2 education, and those studies which seem to address this neglected aspect of language development have been generally concerned with listening as an end-point, rather than an active process of meaning making. Many, for example, reduce listening to finding the right answer to a set of comprehension questions at the end of a passage. This focus, which reflects the nature of commercial and high-stakes tests, ignores the processes involved in any meaning making situation, listening being no exception. This trend has also fallen short of providing a framework for adequately taking account of the variables which affect listening ability (Tafaghodtari Vandergrift, 2008). 2.3.3 L2 Listening: A Cognitive Perspective Drawing on a wide range of disciplines (e.g., cognitive psychology, LI speech education, language pathology and artificial intelligence), current L2 listening theorists recognize that L2 listening draws on multiple sources of information such as linguistic, contextual, and schematic knowledge (e.g., Buck, 2001; Lynch, 1994; Vandergrift, 2006). A consequence of such recognition has been a focus on different textual, cognitive and affective variables such as memory, discourse markers, prior knowledge and anxiety which are believed to affect performance in L2 listening. Based on earlier work by Buck (2001), at least three types of variables are posited to be critical to L2 listening success: linguistic, strategic and learner variables. Linguistic variables entail knowledge of the sound system (phonological), grammar (syntactic), vocabulary (semantic) and contextual influences on interpretation (pragmatic) of the L2 (Flowerdew Miller, 2005). Listeners use L2 phonological knowledge to se gment the stream of sound into meaningful sound units. This includes knowledge about phonemes, stress, intonation, assimilation and elision. Grammatical or syntactic L2 knowledge helps listeners to process or parse the sound stream for meaningful units of language and contributes to comprehension by assigning semantic roles to words (Rost, 2002). L2 semantic knowledge helps listeners assign meaning to word-level units as well as the relationship between those words at the discourse level. L2 pragmatic knowledge helps the listener to infer the speakers intention, particularly if there is any ambiguity in the literal meaning of the utterance. This is closely related to sociolinguistic knowledge (e.g., formal/informal registers, idioms and slang) which listeners use to further interpret the utterance (Buck, 2001). These five elements of linguistic knowledge involved in speech perception are an essential part of any model of listening. Yet, research has shown that listening comprehension is more than speech perception (e.g., Rost, 2004; Schmidt-Rinehart, 1994). Comprehension includes matching what is heard with what is known. According to Rost (2004), the central component in the comprehension process is the activation of schemata in the listeners memory structures to anticipate and monitor,

All About Florida Essay -- essays research papers fc

Did you know that for ever person that lives in Florida, four more people visit the state every year? Tourism makes up eighty-one percent of Florida’s gross state product. Also, â€Å"no trip is complete without tasting a fresh-picked orange or a slice of Key lime pie† (Heinrichs 11). The excellent weather and awesome beaches in Florida are irresistible to tourists. Florida’s early history, geography, climate, wildlife, and economy will be explained thoroughly in this paper.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Florida was first settled over 12,000 years ago when people from Asia migrated to the Americas over the Bering Land Bridge. The first European to set foot on the North American continent was the Spaniard Juan Ponce de Leà ³n. In Spain, there were rumors of a spring bubbling with the magical waters of youth (Heinrichs 15). He set out determined to uncover many rumors about the New World. On March 27th, 1513, he went ashore near present-day St. Augustine and called the area La Florida for one of two reasons. It was either because it was Easter time (Pascua Florida in Spanish) or because of all the flowers he found there (Florida is Spanish for â€Å"flowery†). Unfortunately, Leà ³n was killed by an Indian attack on his second expedition of the area in 1521. The next explorer to try his luck in Florida was Pà ¡nfilo de Narvà ¡ez. Gold was the object of his voyage to Florida, but he found none when he went ashore in Tampa Bay in 1528.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first actual settlement in Florida and North America as well was Fort Caroline. It was built by French Protestants who needed refuge from persecution. The fort was built at the mouth of the St. John’s River. When King Philip II of Spain heard about the French colony, he sent Admiral Pedro Menà ©ndez de Avilà ©s to eliminate the fort. He set up a fort where Leà ³n originally landed and called it San Augustin (St. Augustine). This became the first European settlement in North America that still exists today. The Spanish colony thrived with 140 Franciscan missions and forts. However, by the 1700s, British and Indian raids burned out most of the mission forts. Florida went under British control in 1793 when the Seven Years’ War ended. However, Spain regained Florida when the American Revolution ended in 1783. Spain finally lost Florida to the United States in 1819 when the Adams-Onà ­s treaty was signed between the U.S. an... ...l eat: fish, crabs, shrimp, sharks and octopuses. Mines in Florida contain phosphate rock, petroleum, and natural gas, fuller’s earth, kaolin, limestone, thorium, and zircon.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Florida, nicknamed The Sunshine State, is a tourist and retiree magnet. The state’s high temperatures, exotic wildlife, and sunny skies attract people of all ages. Even the first Spanish explorers to the area thought it was a paradise. A leading producer of oranges, Florida’s economy is growing faster than any other state’s. From the shallow swamps of the Everglades of the south, to the â€Å"hammock† studded forests of the north, Florida is a truly unique state. Florida’s early history, geography, climate, wildlife, and economy stand out from other states. It is a state that should be visited at least once in a lifetime. Works Cited: Blakey, Arch F. â€Å"Florida†. World Book Encyclopedia. World Book Inc.2000. Vol. 7, pp. 242-265. â€Å"Florida Almanac from NETSTATE†. NETSTATE.COM [Online State Almanac] (NSTATE, rev. 2001, 1997; accessed 5 June, 2001); available from http://www.netstate.com/states/alma/fl_alma.htm. Heinrichs, Ann. Florida. Danbury, Connecticut: Children’s Press, 1998.

Socrates :: essays research papers

As we read in the Apology, Socrates was on trial because he was thought to be a wise man who taught his views to the youth. Being wise was an illegal behavior during his time. He was accused of making weaker arguments the stronger. Knowing none of these accusations to be true, Socrates told the jury what he believed to be true. When found guilty of such accusations Socrates did let it be known he did not fear death. As a philosopher he questioned the purity of everything, and of course the heavens were not overlooked. He wondered if after death there was a great place where all who have passed go and live an even better life than known to us on earth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He also wondered if death was a blessing. Not clearly knowing what happens after death, he thought one of two theories would occur. There was either a relocation for the soul in another place with an all new life, or the body was nothing and had no perception of anything once departed. Socrates viewed both situations as good, so a blessing it would be indeed. He then thought if it was like a state of dreamless sleep, death would be an advantage. Thus, think of the best sleep you ever had and did not dream at all. Also think of the mornings you do not want to wake up cause you know the upcoming day entails hard work and minimal pleasures. Socrates thought not many days were as good as this occasional great sleep. If death was as great as this, he thought there was nothing to fear. He also thought that if they were to go on to a different place after death, this as well, would also be great. Given the ability to once again see the people who have passed into this gr eat place.

Hisotry Exam 1

1. Karl Marx predicted that a socialist revolution could only be successful in the most advanced capitalist countries with a large proportion of factory workers – the proletariat (England, Germany, the U. S. or France). However , Contrary to his â€Å"scientific â€Å" prediction, the socialist revolution succeeded in the most backwards agrarian country – the Russian Empire. Answer : Karl Marx Stated that socialist revolution could only be successful in the most advanced capitalist countries instead of the most backwards agrarian countries.It is predicted wrongly to me because for socialism to work you need to exterminate a certain amount of the population and for that to work you have to exterminate the â€Å"middle class† because these people will fight hardest to keep their property and because the most advanced capitalist countries have the biggest Middle classes the system would never be able to work because of the vast power of the middle class.Why this w orked in the â€Å"the most backwards agrarian countries â€Å"like the Russian empire is because of the following reasons: Because the Tsarist regime pre-WW1 oppressed the lower classes there became more and more poverty among the lower classes and the rural agrarian peasants what made room for more strikes and strikes with the goal of securing ownership of the land they worked on, Second the incredibly industrialization that Russia was going through followed that the urban areas where getting overcrowded and the population had to live under horrible and unhealthy living standards resulted in even more strikes a year and that kept building up until the revolution. When World War 1 broke out the chaos got even worse and because the army Conscriptions took skilled workers and brought them into the army whereby these where replaced by unskilled peasants what had an impact on the productivity, And because of poor railroad conditions the city’s developed mass famines what resul ted into mass abandonment of the city’s in search for food.Because of this the supply of good to the army; for the war effort began to dwindle and the army started to suffer from lack of equipment and protection from the elements what led to the army revolting against the tsar to. The conclusion, Because the tsar misused his power to oppress the lower classes, and the poor conditions of the working class in urban area’s gave room for the idea of change, Change to equality, Change for more right to the lower classes and an opening to an ideology of Socialism what gave them that option, And because of desperation for that Change, that idea people where ignorant to see the consequences to what It could lead to. 2.The New Economic Policy (NEP) introduced in 1922 saved the young Soviet Union from the economic collapse and the Bolshevik government from being ousted. In spite of its success, in the end of 1920s NEP was dismantled, which caused a new wave of economic hardships and unprecedented terror. What made the Soviet government under Stalin’s leadership reverse this successful economic policy and resort to such drastic measures in the process? Argue your point Lenin realized that war communism had failed and that he had to choose a different approach to gain the trust of the people again, he therefor chose NEP ( The new economic policy ) he had to choose this system because the people started to revolt against the communist system and he was scared that he would lose control.NEP was planned from the beginning as a between step for Lenin as he says â€Å" NEP is a strategic retreat and a defeat that would be made up once the country was economically healthy† He gave back the free market system to the Russian people and this created the â€Å"kulaks† class the middle class they whir the major component for the incredible increase of the Russian economy with some impressive benchmarks, By 1925 agricultural production was at the sa me level as pre-war level, by 1923 private trade was responsible for about 90 % of foods and goods and by 1924 industrial production returned to the 1913 level. Lenin also started to change his enemy’s from not only the nepmen but also the kulaks because â€Å" Only big capital possessed the qualities that were useful to progress : its ability to organize on a large scale, its tendency to plan its sense of discipline. Therefor the kulaks and nepmen remained object of resentment, envy and suspicion. Even politically the NEP system was greatly feared because they considered it a return of Capitalism so Stalin came up with Collectivization after he thought that the economy was fully grown enough, he exterminated and imprisoned almost all of the Kulaks class he portrayed them as enemies of the state and used their labor as slave labor, The area’s that revolted against this had to pay for it, Stalin tripled the quota’s leaving famine in the area’s Ukraine, so uthern Russia and north Caucuses the people started to starve, Stalin called this â€Å"war by starvation† it was to break the resistance against Collectivism.Collectivism was used to support the massive industrialization by feeding the extremely big workforce that would give the soviets a massive modern military establishment, the heavy industry grew by 400 % making it into an industrial big shot, To support the industrialization Stalin created the largest slave labor ever seen in mankind. Conclusion; There was an idea that drove men like Stalin to horrific deeds like these and that idea was Communism where everyone was equal and everyone served the great nation, everything that came between these men and their idea’s where exterminated like the Nepmen in 1918 and the Kulaks in 1929 because they were a threat to the great idea because they supported Capitalism but why exterminate them?They supported the economy made sure the people whir happy by selling them goods and services. It was all because the threat that the government could not control their power and that they could revolt against the system if they became to economically powerful. So the best way was to exterminate them and give away their land so they would not be a threat anymore and the people would be happy because they would all get a piece of land. Another reason why Stalin chose to get rid of NEP and start collectivism was that he could use arrested kulaks as his slave labor force to reinforce the industrialization growth of soviet union because as he said it is cheap, substitutes machine and the most severe discipline could be used. Hisotry Exam 1 1. Karl Marx predicted that a socialist revolution could only be successful in the most advanced capitalist countries with a large proportion of factory workers – the proletariat (England, Germany, the U. S. or France). However , Contrary to his â€Å"scientific â€Å" prediction, the socialist revolution succeeded in the most backwards agrarian country – the Russian Empire. Answer : Karl Marx Stated that socialist revolution could only be successful in the most advanced capitalist countries instead of the most backwards agrarian countries.It is predicted wrongly to me because for socialism to work you need to exterminate a certain amount of the population and for that to work you have to exterminate the â€Å"middle class† because these people will fight hardest to keep their property and because the most advanced capitalist countries have the biggest Middle classes the system would never be able to work because of the vast power of the middle class.Why this w orked in the â€Å"the most backwards agrarian countries â€Å"like the Russian empire is because of the following reasons: Because the Tsarist regime pre-WW1 oppressed the lower classes there became more and more poverty among the lower classes and the rural agrarian peasants what made room for more strikes and strikes with the goal of securing ownership of the land they worked on, Second the incredibly industrialization that Russia was going through followed that the urban areas where getting overcrowded and the population had to live under horrible and unhealthy living standards resulted in even more strikes a year and that kept building up until the revolution. When World War 1 broke out the chaos got even worse and because the army Conscriptions took skilled workers and brought them into the army whereby these where replaced by unskilled peasants what had an impact on the productivity, And because of poor railroad conditions the city’s developed mass famines what resul ted into mass abandonment of the city’s in search for food.Because of this the supply of good to the army; for the war effort began to dwindle and the army started to suffer from lack of equipment and protection from the elements what led to the army revolting against the tsar to. The conclusion, Because the tsar misused his power to oppress the lower classes, and the poor conditions of the working class in urban area’s gave room for the idea of change, Change to equality, Change for more right to the lower classes and an opening to an ideology of Socialism what gave them that option, And because of desperation for that Change, that idea people where ignorant to see the consequences to what It could lead to. 2.The New Economic Policy (NEP) introduced in 1922 saved the young Soviet Union from the economic collapse and the Bolshevik government from being ousted. In spite of its success, in the end of 1920s NEP was dismantled, which caused a new wave of economic hardships and unprecedented terror. What made the Soviet government under Stalin’s leadership reverse this successful economic policy and resort to such drastic measures in the process? Argue your point Lenin realized that war communism had failed and that he had to choose a different approach to gain the trust of the people again, he therefor chose NEP ( The new economic policy ) he had to choose this system because the people started to revolt against the communist system and he was scared that he would lose control.NEP was planned from the beginning as a between step for Lenin as he says â€Å" NEP is a strategic retreat and a defeat that would be made up once the country was economically healthy† He gave back the free market system to the Russian people and this created the â€Å"kulaks† class the middle class they whir the major component for the incredible increase of the Russian economy with some impressive benchmarks, By 1925 agricultural production was at the sa me level as pre-war level, by 1923 private trade was responsible for about 90 % of foods and goods and by 1924 industrial production returned to the 1913 level. Lenin also started to change his enemy’s from not only the nepmen but also the kulaks because â€Å" Only big capital possessed the qualities that were useful to progress : its ability to organize on a large scale, its tendency to plan its sense of discipline. Therefor the kulaks and nepmen remained object of resentment, envy and suspicion. Even politically the NEP system was greatly feared because they considered it a return of Capitalism so Stalin came up with Collectivization after he thought that the economy was fully grown enough, he exterminated and imprisoned almost all of the Kulaks class he portrayed them as enemies of the state and used their labor as slave labor, The area’s that revolted against this had to pay for it, Stalin tripled the quota’s leaving famine in the area’s Ukraine, so uthern Russia and north Caucuses the people started to starve, Stalin called this â€Å"war by starvation† it was to break the resistance against Collectivism.Collectivism was used to support the massive industrialization by feeding the extremely big workforce that would give the soviets a massive modern military establishment, the heavy industry grew by 400 % making it into an industrial big shot, To support the industrialization Stalin created the largest slave labor ever seen in mankind. Conclusion; There was an idea that drove men like Stalin to horrific deeds like these and that idea was Communism where everyone was equal and everyone served the great nation, everything that came between these men and their idea’s where exterminated like the Nepmen in 1918 and the Kulaks in 1929 because they were a threat to the great idea because they supported Capitalism but why exterminate them?They supported the economy made sure the people whir happy by selling them goods and services. It was all because the threat that the government could not control their power and that they could revolt against the system if they became to economically powerful. So the best way was to exterminate them and give away their land so they would not be a threat anymore and the people would be happy because they would all get a piece of land. Another reason why Stalin chose to get rid of NEP and start collectivism was that he could use arrested kulaks as his slave labor force to reinforce the industrialization growth of soviet union because as he said it is cheap, substitutes machine and the most severe discipline could be used.